Examination of the Role of Evolution Theory Essay

In this paper I will briefly describe the evolutionary theory in general, and specifically as it relates to the study of criminology. I will examine the ways in which natural selection has shaped the processes which motivate human behavior, especially in terms of how competing for limited resources and ensuring that one’s genetic code is passed on are linked to aggressive behavior. Two crimes of which I have personal knowledge will be evaluated, with emphasis placed on the ways in which evolutionary theory may account for the aspects of criminal behavior in each. Finally, I will reflect on the ways in which evolutionary theory may help further our understanding of the causes and predictors of criminal behavior and whether it should become a focus of a practitioner’s efforts to help prevent crime and reduce recidivism on an individual and programmatic level. Evolutionary theory is the study of the ways in which human behavior has been shaped over the history of the development of our species through the process of natural selection. Since human behavior includes criminal behavior, the study of evolutionary theory can he helpful in our understanding of the causes of crime. Evolutionary theory seeks to better understand and possibly predict today’s criminal behavior by examining the history of humans as a species to determine the root source of aggressive and violent behavior. Natural selection is the process by which certain naturally-occurring adaptations get passed on from generation to generation because they provide some advantage to survival and reproduction (reproductive success). Simply stated, if one of our ancestors has a genetic trait that makes him or her more likely to survive, mate, and reproduce in a harsh social and physical climate, this trait will be carried on to his or her children. While on the other hand, an individual lacking this trait will be less likely to reproduce and pass his or her traits on to the next generation. Over time, the gene traits that are favorable to survival and reproduction continue to pass from one generation to the next, to eventually be present in modern man. This is survival of the fittest, that the most genetically fit individuals are the ones who survive and pass their gene pool on to the next generation through sexual reproduction. Evolution through natural selection is a slow process, however, and the environment can change much more quickly than the evolutionary process. This means that the adaptations which increased likelihood of survival and reproduction in our ancestral environment thousands of years ago do not necessarily help us to do so today. Neanderthal’s did not have access to supermarkets, match.com, or central heating. Modern man does have access to plentiful resources, but our brains have not had the time to catch up. In fact, these traits that once helped keep us alive as individuals and as a species can be harmful in our current environment, which is fundamentally different than the environment in which these drives were formed. In his seminal book, On Aggression (1966), Konrad Lorenz posited that aggressive behavior is inherited to help an individual to protect scarce resources, such as mates and food (Lorenz, 1966). Whereas aggression may have made it more likely that you would successfully compete for food and mates in our distant past, it now leads more often to what is considered antisocial and criminal behavior. The two crimes that I will discuss today were carried out by offenders with whom I have worked directly, which provides me with some unique insight into the situations, backgrounds, and psychological mindsets of the actors involved. Last spring, Joe stabbed his girlfriend of 5 years multiple times in the face, chest, and neck. His girlfriend, Donna, sustained multiple life-threatening injuries requiring emergency surgeries and were nearly fatal. If not for the quick response by first responders and the effective interventions of ER staff and doctors, this crime would be classified as a murder. Donna had filed a protection-from-abuse order a year before the assault, after Joe confronted and assaulted her for believing that she had been sleeping with another man. This order was broken several times before the stabbing took place, but Joe was quickly released each time. In my opinion, an evolutionary theorist would say that this act of violence was motivated by the fear of losing one’s mate, and therefore his means by which to reproduce. If this had occurred in our ancestral environment, the motivation may have been more necessary as males would be competing for a limited number of female mates, but this is certainly not the case today. Some other facts about Joe are that he was diagnosed with bi-polar disorder and was not medicated because he could not afford his prescriptions. He had dropped out of school in 10th grade, leaving him limited employment opportunities, he was an active substance dependant, and he was raised in a single-parent household after his mother died in a car accident when he was 7. Joe’s father left his other son (Joe’s brother), who was only four years older, to take on the majority of Joe’s upbringing from this point on. In my opinion, even though Joe may have had an innate drive to protect what he believed to be a threat to his mate, it was the lack of protective forces and the presence of a combination of criminogenic risk factors, across multiple disciplines, which led to his criminal behavior. Evolutionary theory might have been able to describe why some of the mechanisms by which Joe’s aggressiveness developed, but it could not account for the crime itself because everyone is born with these same innate aggressive mechanisms. The second crime I will describe was an assault carried out by members of rival gangs in a dispute over a female and rights to prime drug-selling territory. Desmond is a member of the CRIPs gang and is involved in selling cocaine and marijuana in Northeastern PA. He has a prior record of three Possession of a Controlled Substance with Intent to Deliver charges, two convictions for Assault, and was currently on probation. One day during the summer, he came home to his apartments at the Sherman Hills development to find his girlfriend talking with a member of a rival gang, the Bloods, whom she claimed to know from elementary school. The Bloods are also involved in selling drugs in this area, and both gangs often feud over how the territory should be broken up, but this area was clearly marked as belonging to the CRIPs. Desmond confronted the man, and after he claimed that he was â€Å"disrespected†, beat him up and smashed his head on the curb with his foot. Evolution theorists would state that the motivations involved in this crime would be hatred between rivals (unrelated acquaintances) based on competition for limited materials and intangible resources like social status and respect (Daly & Wilson, 1997). The resources in this case being exclusive access to the money to be made in an area with a high concentration of â€Å"consumers†. The other environmental factors at play here are the perceived threat to Desmond’s girlfriend, or mate, who is the means by which his gene pool will be passed on. In addition, Desmond gave as reasoning for his crime the fact that he had been disrespected and had to reassert his social status through a violent reaction. Although I believe all of these evolutionary motivations to be valid, I don’t believe that it was innate drive alone which led to this crime. Anyone who is in a situation where he feels disrespected becomes angry, but not everyone responds by causing permanent damage to the offender’s facial nerves. As Bartol & Bartol state, â€Å"there is little evidence to justify portraying humans as innately dangerous and brutal or as controlled by instinct† (Bartol, 2011, p. 116). I believe that it was the presence and interplay of a number of criminogenic risk factors which decided whether this interaction would end with words or fists. In this case, the risk factors with the most influence on behavior were low socioeconomic status, lack of a pro-social peer group, lack of access to gainful employment opportunities, and antisocial attitudes and beliefs, among others. There were the difference between how you or I would have reacted and how a gang member reacts. If these risk factors were mitigated by programs initiated to reduce Desmond’s criminogenic risk and to provide him with access to protective factors, the crime most likely could have been avoided. There would be no way, however, to change his innate biological drives, developed over thousands of years of evolution, because these drives are static. I believe that evolutionary theory can help us better understand how and why the physiology and functioning of the brain developed the way it did through the process of natural selection. I also believe that this can be useful to our â€Å"investigation of the mind’s structure and operations† (Daly & Wilson, 1997). This knowledge can help us look for explanations for why some individuals engage in criminal behavior and to better understand the mechanisms by which this behavior occurs; which can give us insight into developing more effective interventions (Ward & Durant, 2011). I think that the evolutionary theory can help us to understand macro-criminality, but I do not believe that this understanding can help us nearly as much in our search for the causes and predictors of crime on an individual level. Working to reduce an individual offender’s risk of recidivating requires a careful analysis of what factors led him or her to lack the ability to control these in nate drives and an intervention program to help them to learn to do so. Every person alive today has been shaped by the same evolutionary process, so what are the factors that lead some individuals to be able to keep these drives in check and make rational decisions while others give in to their primal desires and engage in criminal behavior? I believe that the answer to this question is that individuals who engage in criminal behavior are exposed to some combination of biological, sociological, and physiological criminogenic risk factors while lacking the presence of protective factors which may have neutralized these risks. On these factors is where I believe we should be focusing our efforts and studies. Daly & Wilson state that the insights into the workings of criminal behavior â€Å"should not be viewed as alternatives to sociological and psychological analysis, but as complementary components of a more complete understanding† (Daly & Wilson, 1997) In this way, I believe evolutionary theory can give us insight into the â€Å"how† and the â€Å"why† of criminal behavior, but I believe we should be looking more closely at the â€Å"who†, â€Å"where†, and â€Å"when†. References Lorenz, K. (1966). On aggression. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Daly, M. & Wilson, M. (1997). Crime and conflict: Homicide in evolutionary psychological perspective. Crime & Justice, 22, 51–100. Bartol, C. R., & Bartol, A. M. (2011). Criminal behavior a psychological approach. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. Ward, T. & Durrant, R. (2011). Evolutionary behavioral science and crime: Aetiological and intervention implications. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 16, 193-201.

Healthy Eating is Healthy Living Essay

Did you know that the money spent to treat people with illnesses related to the lack of health makes up 9.1 percent of the America’s total medical expenses? That is about 78.5 billion dollars! (CDC). If we all eat healthier, expenses like these could be lowered. That is why kids, especially students, should eat more healthy foods. All of us know that eating our fruits and vegetables is important for our health. But how important is it? Healthy eating can actually reduce a person’s risk from developing any illnesses such diabetes, obesity, hypertension, etc. Foods with the proper nutrients and vitamins can increase a person’s immunity so that they will not be susceptible to the diseases. For example, a higher calcium intake can reduce the risk for developing diabetes (M.N.T). According to the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention, a minimum of 400 grams of fruits and vegetables must be eaten by kids ages 11- 16 per day (CDC). These are the necessary amounts to maintain a good health and not get sick. Healthy eating helps you maintain a good weight. About one to two months ago, my school, Sutter Middle School, required everyone to be part of the physical fitness program. Students must have their weight and height measured during this program. I noticed that there were students who were really nervous about measuring their weight. I realized that kids with the lack of health can sometimes feel self-conscious when it comes to their weight, whether it being underweight, overweight, or obese. Depending on the age, a person must consume a consistent amount of calories per day to maintain a decent weight. A healthy diet consisting of whole grains, fruits, vegetables, etc. offers a good and balanced calorie supply. Fatty foods, like potato chips, soda, pizza, hamburgers, etc. contain too many calories per serving. For moderately active kids, males ages 14-18 can have 2200-2800 calories per day and females ages 14-18 can have 2000 calories per day (Exercise). â€Å"We have all heard that eating a healthy diet is expensive, and people have used that as an excuse for not eating a healthy diet, but healthy foods do not necessarily cost more than less healthy foods,† says Andrea Carlson, an economist from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Economic Research Service. Junk foods may be convenient and tasty, but they don’t cost any more than fresh and healthy produce. The price of carrots is half the price of potato chips by portion size. According to Andrea  Carlson’s and her colleague Elizabeth Frazà £o’s studies, when considering portion size, the least to most expensive types of food are: grains, dairy, vegetables, fruit, protein and less healthy foods. (Carl son). Another important benefit from eating healthy is energy. Eating healthy allows students to have the energy to perform well in school and sports. Foods that contain a lot of nutrients and vitamins offer a long digestion time, giving you a slower and stable release of energy (Straight Health). The longer the digestion will take, the longer your energy will last. Principals often call during the week standardized testing to say to get plenty of rest and eat a healthy breakfast. A healthy breakfast can actually help students with testing because a meal containing complex carbohydrates, protein, fat, etc. can prevent a drop in blood sugar and allow students to last throughout the day (Healthier). Many people often think, â€Å"Well foods with a bunch of sugar can make you energetic.† That is true. Though that is true, junk foods with a lot of simple carbohydrates, also known as sugar, create a big boost in energy but also create a sugar crash. A sugar crash is when you consume foods that are loaded with sugar and lack other nutrients. Then later, your blood sugar suddenly spikes down, causing fatigue and dizziness, negatively affecting students’ school performances (Straight Health). Many beneficial consequences can be made if students eat more healthy foods. It can help students reduce their risk from developing any illnesses, maintain a good and balanced weight, and allow them to have the energy to perform well in school and/or sports. What are you waiting for? Go grab a healthy snack and enjoy it!

Internal Services Marketing

SWP 59/91 â€Å"INTERNAL SERVICES MARKETING† PROFESSOR BRETT COLLINS School of Management Deaking University Victoria 3217 Australia (Tel: +6152 471277) and PROFESSOR ADRIAN PAYNE Marketing and Logistics Group Cranfield School of Management Cranfield Institute of Technology Cranfield Bedford MK43 OAL UK (Tel: 0234 751122) Submitted to European Management Journal Copyright: Collins and Payne 1991 INTERNAL SERVICES MARKETING INTRODUCTION Over the past few years the term internal marketing is increasingly being used to describe the application of marketing internally within the organisation. There are two dimensions relevant to our discussion of internal marketing. Firstly there is the notion that every department and every person within an organisation is both a supplier and a customer. The second aspect relates to the organisation’ staff and s involves ensuring they work together in a manner supporting the company strategy and goals. This has been recognised as being especially important in service firms where there is a close relationship between production and consumption of the service. It is thus concerned with both quality management and customer service and involves co-ordinated people and process improvement strategies. Internal marketing relates to all functions within the organisation, but it is vitally concerned with the management of human resources. However the traditional personnel department, and the more advanced human resources department, have frequently been oriented towards control and administrative activities rather than the alignment of human resources towards achieving strategic organisational purposes and goals. In this paper we explore the marketing of a particular internal service within the organisation – the human resource function. Our purpose is to illustrate how internal marketing concepts and methods used by marketing managers can provide the basis of a new perspective on meeting the opportunities and challenges faced by human resource managers. A market-oriented human resource manager is more likely to make an impact on the successof a company, through being more effective in both demonstrating the relevance of . human resource management (HRM) to all management team members, and helping other managers to increase their productivity. Our approach is to first consider the nature of the challenges and opportunities confronting human resource (HR) managers. A view of what is seen to be a central task for the HR management professional is then outlined. The congruence between marketing function activities and the HR management activities is then described. Finally, we consider how the HR manager can utilise the philosophy, ideas, and tools of the marketing function to make a more effective contribution toward the organisation’ objectives. s CHALLENGES FACING THE HR MANAGER The managers in a company who deal with the ‘ people’ issues are now recognised as having an increasingly strategic role in the success of many businesses. Regardless of whether the function these managers perform is called personnel, human resources, industrial relations, or training and development, it collectively now represents a business role similar in importance to the areas of finance, marketing and operations management. This trend has been driven by a more intensely competitive business environment, increased use of technology in some industries, and the shift in corporate philosophy from asset management to operations management. A focus on operations management has forced CEO’ to understand the need for s killed HR executives if they are to successfully cope with change. An organisation able to adapt to change is generally found to be more able to sustain competitive advantage in an environment of increasing uncertainty. The constant stress of corporate take-overs, new ventures, the restructuring of companies, rationalisation of existing operations, new technology introduction and staff lay-offs, means that the succes sof basic strategic decisions increasingly depends on â€Å"matching skills with jobs, keeping key personnel after a merger, and solving the human problems that arise from introducing new technology or closing a plant†. The dramatic turnaround of SAS by Jan Carlzon was driven through people rather than through an expensive investment in equipment and assets. 2 Increasing attention is being focused on the area of external customer retention and the enormous potential for improved profitability. 3 Top management should also seek to obtain improved organisational performance through effective HRM strategies aimed at improving personnel retention. The base-line benefits are cost savings on . etraining in a rapid turnover job market and cutting down the equally expensive knowledge drain. Companies able to manage this issue will reap the rewards which go with a team of committed, active individuals at a time when under-training is sapping productivity among competitors. Increased u sage of technology in some industries has led to the assumption that the quality of people performance will become a less important issue as technology becomes more pervasive. However the maintenance of reliable performance by competent employees is becoming more crucial. For example, we are now in an era where electronic banking means fewer face-to-face encounters between the bank and its customers. Consequently the importance of handling these interactions, and the ‘ costs’ of not making the most of opportunities are greater. In a relatively homogeneous industry such as banking, a key opportunity for banks to gain a competitive edge over competitors lies in the quality of its people. In an era of electronic fund transfer there is opportunity for a bank to position itself as one that has good people, not just good machines. Many of the key challenges facing retail banking involve the employee: the need to sell and cross-sell, unionisation, electronic banking, affirmative action, service quality management and technology management. It has been argued that HR professionals have failed in the past to reach their full potential within the corporate framework because they devoted themselves to the creation of ever more sophisticated programm es and forgot the whole purpose of the business. HR managers have had a role in organisations dealing with outside pressures such as government, unions, and safety, but their active involvement and collaboration is also needed with the production, marketing, and finance functions. They have been responsible for fending off interruptions, handling the reporting requirements of regulatory bodies, and dealing with social responsibility issues, but often are not involved in activities perceived by other managers to be fundamentally important to the business. Managing a corporation is complex, and CEOs find it necessary to simplify their task by concentrating on what appear to be the most important strategic issues. Because of resource limitations, it is necessary to focus senior management’ attention and s time on those aspects of the business process with the highest expected payoff. means that some areas with extremely high potential impact, but a very low perceived probability of delivering significant results, must get less attention than one might really wish. Strategic HRM requires a significant investment of organisational resources, which directly and immediately affects profits, and can thus make it unattractive to managers under pressure for short-term results. Further, any real understanding of what competent HRM could contribute to the success of a business has only been popularised fairly recently. 6 For these reasons senior management has often failed to grasp why HRM was relevant to business strategy, business performance, and the cost management function. Clearly the central task of HRM must be to gain the upport of senior management, secure the commitment of the CEO, and ensure HRM makes the most effective contribution possible to the organisation’ objectives. s This The HRM function in a company is never likely to be valued unless it convinces management it can provide significant payoffs, and is part of the key interactions between the organisation and environment. productivity. HRM will become established as an integr al part of a business through helping other managers to increase their Managers do not require more sophisticated programmes. They require someone who understands their problems, can actively contribute to the more effective and efficient management of human resources, and who has a good understanding of the business. We will now consider how the roles of marketing managers and HR managers are linked. THE MARKETING – HRM ANALOGY The HRM function has three distinct client groups, or markets, with which it must deal effectively; employees within the organisation, other managers involved with the senior management tasks including the CEO, and external groups such as prospective employees, government, unions, and regulatory bodies. Consideration of the challenges faced by HR managers indicates that they are similar to those challenges faced by other senior managers, and requirements for success correspond to those needed by good marketing managers. The use of marketing ideas does not need to be narrowly confined to products and markets. Marketing has been defined as â€Å"a social process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others† , and implies two ‘ voluntary parties with unsatisfied needs, an expectation of mutual benefit, a means of communication, and a medium to complete the exchange. People who buy goods and services are involved in the same type of exchange process as people who seek employment that is satisfying, interesting, and more than a well-lit work space. The relationship between buyer and seller in a labour market is such that the employee must sell labour to earn an income. A company must create goods or services and exchange them in order to earn profits. Clearly there are times when one party to an exchange has much more bargaining power than the other party. The manager who seeks mutual benefit through working closely with the HRM department is involved in a similar exchange process to that which takes lace between consumers and companies everywhere. A source of interdepartmental conflict can be the need for a marketing manager to represent the interests of a customer against the needs of other managers. We do not lack examples of conflict between the marketing and accounting functions. For example, while the Sales department are properly concerned with maintaining a good relationship and undisrupted supply to the customer, the Accounts department is concerned with administering credit control. Accounts may seek the withholding of supply, because credit guidelines have been exceeded at a time when Sales is trying to service a sudden increase in demand, resulting in open conflict. 8 Similarly, an HR manager can become involved in interdepartmental conflict through a need to represent the interests of an employee against the needs of another manager. Like marketing, HRM is a function where success requires close co-operation with other functions, but there can be significant potential for conflict. The coalitions of power and politics at the core of fundamental conflicts such as this can be used to maximise business performance, or detract from it. The task for the HR manager is made more difficult because the quality of management performance is difficult to quantify – there is no bottom line responsibility. This can leave the HR manager without the defence available to managers of profitable business units who have tangible evidence of performance in their regular financial reports; bottom line results. Marketing performs a valuable role in that it creates utility, the capacity to satisfy needs. The HR manager is similarly concerned with the creation of utilities. The marketing philosophy or concept states that, in serving marketplace needs, the entire organisation should be guided by thinking that centres around the consumer. For our purposes the concept has three key elements: n The HR manager requires a thorough knowledge of the needs, wants, and problems of the CEO , other managers and employees. There are three customers for a training programme: the delegate (who is also the consumer), the delegate’ line manager; and top management. The needs of these three s ustomer groups vary and may need to be reconciled. Ideally the HR manager should start with a knowledge of client needs and work backwards to developing products and services to satisfy them. n The second element requires that the cost, design, implementation and follow up on HR projects should be carefully planned so all features are consistent with project goals, and the process co-ordinated with other functions in the organisation, w Finally, in our definition of marketing we recognise individuals or groups engaging in the marketing process have diverse goals and objectives. If the organisation itself does not gain utility from an exchange then this element of the philosophy is not met. Consequently we would expect that if an HR activity did not lead to organisational gain the activity would be discontinued. Quantification of performance plays a crucial role in the success of the marketing function, and the performance audit guides corrective action, while providing measurements essential to supporting access to resources for projects. HR managers have sometimes been characterised by a lack of willingness to work with performance measures. Marketing strongly depends on techniques developed in the behavioural sciences for quantification of the needs, wants, and perceptions of consumers. These tools can be readily adapted to requirements of the HR manager. While measures employed by marketing managers are not always of high precision, they are essential to the building of credibility through measurement, and performance against explicit goals. Management performance in functions other than marketing and HRM are generally more amenable to performance measurement. An HR manager with a market orientation would have good knowledge of the needs and wants of the client groups served, and develop a co-ordinated approach to servicing those requirements consistent with organisation goals, and with the expectation of achieving organisational gain from any exchange process. In contrast, a product-oriented HR manager would place primary emphasis on the products or services the HRM department offers, and how these are provided. It is instructive to consider the differences between these two opposing views. Consider training programmes for example; the difference between a product-oriented, and a marketoriented manager, is shown in Figure 1. This example is stereotypical in that the model represents two extreme positions. No one person would be expected to exhibit all of the characteristics presented for a specific orientation, but an HR practitioner would be expected to possessseveral if they were either market or product-oriented and the distinction between two very different management philosophies are illustrated. We have found it a useful exercise, in workshops with senior managers, to discuss the role of conflicting philosophies and how they affect achievement of a marketing orientation. This can be addressed in the context of both external customers10 and Although it has been accepted for many years that a market internal customers†. orientation is essential to the success of a business, it has not been proven in all b’ igure I: Stereotypical I)itfcrenccs Itetw~~~ hlarkrt-Oriented uncl I’ rotll,ct-Oriellletl IIH hlihn;rg:ers with Itesl~~ to Training Yrogr;rmmes 4’ lTITUDES Attitudes & PROCEDURES I’ ROI)IlCT ORIENTATION to cut costs and MARKET ORIENTATION Client needs determine training programmes. towards clients: They should be glad we exist. Trying bring out better programmes. Department interests. Focus Programme offering: provides courses that fit our skills & Schedule programmes we know the clients need. Interest in innovation: of costs: scheduled for is on technology and cost cutting. Focus on identifying A critical objective. new opportunities. Importance A number in the budget we cannot exceed. rcquircmcnts in mind. Number of programmes the year: Role of marketing Attendance Set with Ihc dclivcry Set with client needs and costs in mind. research: To determine client reaction if used at all. is good revision. To determine client needs and if they are being met. at programs: Fill all available places – repeating Select attendees according to their needs and coordinate this with other managers. Demonstrate clients. need satisfying benelits Promotion of programmes: Advise managers when their staff is to attend the next course. of course to contingent situations. Monopoly or regulated markets provide examples of nonmarket orientation. As the difference between a market orientation, and any one of many conflicting orientations possible, is accepted as the difference between unstable short-term success and stable long-term growth, it becomes of considerable importance to senior managers to push a market orientation within their company. Similarly, the importance of HRM has gradually gained credibility and importance, as managers have come to understand how it can contribute to the achievement of business success. There exists an increasing number of well known companies where superior HRM is believed to be a key factor in their success. We have seen the similarity in roles of the marketing and HR managers. The marketing and HRM processes both involve the creation and exchange of utilities. need to represent the interests of a client, against the narrow interests of another manager, may be conducive to the well being of the company but a source of open interdepartmental conflict. This conflict is difficult to manage and can detract from the effectiveness of the function and the organisation. Both functions require commitment and support from the CEO to succeed, and performance measurement is seen to be an important tool for building credibility within the company. The market orientation can be applied equally to either the marketing or HR functions when it is accepted that success is achieving organisational goals through delivering customer satisfaction. We will now consider how the HR manager can harness the ideas, and tools of the marketing function to more effectively contribute toward the organisation’ objectives. s THE HRM-MARKETING FUNCTION A We are concerned here with internal marketing – that form of marketing where both the â€Å"customer† and the â€Å"supplier† are inside the organisation. In this context we consider employees as customers or clients. These classifications are quite broad, and could be further divided into such groupings as the board, managers, supervisors, foremen, clerical staff, etc. The HRM-Marketing function can be described in terms of seeing managers and employees as in-house customers, viewing the tasks and activities performed by the HRM function as in-house products or services, and offering in-house or services that satisfy the needs and wants of managers and employees, while addressing the objectives of the organisation. 2 The reasons for believing marketing provides a useful framework for HRM depend largely on the congruences we have demonstrated between essential activities of the two functions. In addition to these congruences, there is a strong similarity in the constraints and difficulties facing either marketing or HR managers. Concepts and tools proven to be useful to the marketing function can also be applied to the benefit of HRM. The HRM function provides services or programmes to employees and management, which means it sells performances that directly influence business productivity. Internal marketing can help an HR manager to attract and hold the type of people a company wants, and get the best of in-house customers, the HR function can upgrade the capability of a company to satisfy the needs and wants of its external customers. Marketing management is the process of increasing the effectiveness and/or efficiency by which marketing activities are performed. Effectiveness refers to the degree to which organisational objectives are attained, while efficiency is concerned with the expenditure of resources to accomplish these objectives. This difference is eloquently expressed in the view that it is more important to do the right things (improve effectiveness) than to do things right (improve efficiency). 13 An organisation that is doing the right things wrong (effective but not efficient), can outperform organisations that are doing the wrong things right. Effectiveness and efficiency is also a concern of the HR manager seeking improved performance. MARKETING ACTIVITIES The marketing function in any organisation is concerned with a number of related activities which include: 8 Understanding of the market and competitive environment. Definition of the firm’ Mission. s Determination of the Target Market Segments to be emphasised. Developing integrated Marketing Mix strategies to accomplish this Mission in the selected segments. Implement Marketing Mix strategies and Control marketing activity. 8 8 8 8 This well known model of marketing function activities, which involves the above steps, is used as a basis for a discussion on internal HRM marketing. Market and Competitive Environment The starting point is for HR managers to gain a good knowledge of the needs and wants of the client groups served, the significant factors influencing the HR department’ operations, and identify the ‘ s publics’ which interact with the company. This process is market analysis and involves collecting information on the different client markets into a database. Market research should be used to identify internal client needs, wants and attitudes just as it can be used to identify the needs, wants and attitudes of external consumers or industrial buyers. For example, ‘ climate surveys’ concerning perceptions of remuneration packages, employment conditions and performance appraisal, and opinions of quality improvement programmes, provide direct benefits for the redesign and improvement of key policies, processesand programmes. There is also the positive effect on morale that flows from taking an interest in the views of employees. This channel of communication provides an early means for pin-pointing organisational breakdowns and problem areas. An important requirement before undertaking data collection is to adopt a commitment to face the issues uncovered, no matter how unpalatable. It is an on-going process requiring that issues be resolved in order to maintain credibility of the HR department at all levels within the company. To raise the expectations of client groups without delivering can generate strongly negative effects. Finally, market research can also provide a basis for monitoring the impact of programmes on employees, and check whether HR programmes are achieving what they were designed to achieve. This market research process sometimes suffers from a condition referred to as the â€Å"no-full-disclosure disease† 14. It manifests itself through people within the management hierarchy who fear the things threatening them may become known to others, and then used to their personal detriment. The extent of this problem depends on survey design and content. People interviewed tend to speak freely when given a chance to express their thoughts and opinions on HRM issues. However undertaking not to reveal the content of an interview under any circumstances, without prior approval from the person interviewed, is sometimes necessary in order to get at the real problems and issues. Whether use is made of questionnaires, personal interviews, informal meetings of managers, or group discussions, market research provides a clear means of identifying client needs and wants. It also provides the means for tracking performance. Mission The second step involves the development of a mission for the HR department. The corporate mission statement for an organisation is too broad to be meaningful for a specific business function, and consequently a mission statement should be specifically developed for the HRM function. It involves asking the questions â€Å"what is our role within the organisation ? and â€Å"what should our role be within the organisation? â€Å". Figure 2 provides an example of a HR mission statement based on one developed with a leading British service organisation. FiPure 2: Human Resource Mission Statement To develop and promote the highest quality human resource practices and initiatives in an ethical, cost effective and timely manner to support the current and future business objectives of the organisation and to enable line managers to maximise the calibre, effectiveness and development of their human resources. This will be achieved through working with managers and staff to: n Develop an integrated human resource policy and implement its consistent use throughout the organisation Enhance managers’efficient use ‘ human resources through the of provision of responsive and adaptable services Be the preferred source of core strategic HR services Provide high quality tailored HR consultancy Introduce methods to plan for the provision of required calibre and quantity of staff Ensure consistent line accountability throughout all areas within the organisation Assist the organisation in becoming more customer aware and responsive to changing needs Define and encourage implementation of an improved communications culture throughout the organisation Maintain an innovative and affordable profile for HRM n n n n n n n n At the HRM level the definition of mission does not have to be complex. It should provide a framework for explaining the HR department’ role and how it can help s he different levels and units of an organisation to co-ordinate their efforts to achieve the overall objectives of the organisation. Once the mission statement has been adopted objectives need to be formalised. Because objectives are not equally important, a hierarchy of potential services, programmes and projects should be put together. If possible these objectives should be operationalised – stated in terms that are specific, and which will lead to measurable end results. It is important to understand what needs to be accomplished, when the task should be completed, and how it will be decided that the task is completed. This process links very closely with the market research function which can be used to demonstrate performance against specific objectives. A function which provides a service, and deals predominantly in intangibles, requires tangible evidence of success in order to demonstrate competent performance, and help build credibility. Market Segmentation The third step is deciding which market groups should be emphasised. Market segmentation is a process by which we divide the total, heterogeneous group of clients into smaller, more homogeneous groups with similar needs and wants that the HR function can successfully satisfy. By developing specific services we can generally improve the effectiveness of our performance in satisfying clients. It may cost more to serve smaller groups, or handle problems requiring customised solutions. Because of this, there is sometimes a need to balance the level of customisation required to adequately solve a problem, against the benefits which might accrue to the organisation. This is very much a cost-benefit exercise. The characterisation shown in Figure 3 can be helpful for sorting problems into classes, each of which require different capabilities. At a high degree of customisation, there is increased demand for resources from the HR function. The HR cost to the organisation increases with an increase in the level of customisation. Programmes, or projects undertaken by HR typically involve longterm benefits with short-term costs, and given limited resources, this has direct impact on the HR department’ effectiveness. Quadrant 1 in Figure 3 represents the situation where there is need to fit a key programme to the specialised needs of a client group. A major company wishing to run an in-house strategic management seminar, enabling senior management to . Figure 3. CHARA CTERISING HR MARKETING PROBLEMS Programme l l oriented skills Client l l oriented skills standardised customising Importance of issue to organisation objectives I 3 s issue management skills needed 2 Buy-in-solution needs consultative skills 1 Fiexible approach skills 1 I l l control flows l l development project control skills needed need monitoring skills 31 LOW 4i HIGH required C Degree of customisation review and discuss current management thinking and practice, is an example. The CEO would perceive this to be of high value to the organisation, while requiring this process to fit closely with the business context. The programme-oriented task found in quadrant 2 is characterised by the opportunity for a high quality but standardised approach to be taken. For example, consider a betting agency involved in the conversion of operations from a manual to a computerised telephone betting system. There is a need to develop and implement a programme at low cost which will enable a smooth transition to the new system. Due to the large group of operators requiring new skills there is an opportunity to seek savings through standardisation. The importance of this issue means effective performance by the HR department is more critical. In quadrant 3 the degree of customisation required for a task is low – for example where factory staff are being given first-aid training. The content of a first-aid training programme will be fairly standard across a range of industries. Such a programme is not central to achievement of organisation objectives, and represents a situation where service delivery can readily be obtained from outside the organisation. Once the training programme was in place knowing who had attended the course, and monitoring the training process would be the key tasks. An increase in the degree of customisation required corresponds to an increase in the level of organisation-specific content, as shown in quadrant 4. Consider a retail tyre organisation which needs to train shop floor staff in the testing and servicing of car batteries. This more specialised course requires company-specific input, and an inhouse programme is the best solution. In this quadrant the need is for course development skills, a flexible approach, and the ability to manage the development process. Other examples are custom-designed employee retirement programmes, or surveys of work group satisfaction where there is a need here to design and implement a project with the specific needs of a client group in mind. Obviously most impact can be made by HRM focusing efforts in those quadrants involving problems of high importance to the organisation, but not involving significant short-term investment. This type of problem area, identified because the issues involved are considered central to the achievement of business objectives, will often be more able to attract support and adequate funding. Working in areas requiring a high level of customisation, which are also critical to business success, is the challenge facing HR. This is the direction in which HR requirements have moved due to the increased complexity of business, changing technology, and the shift from an asset management to operations management philosophy. Segmentation of employees on the basis of their needs and wants, as opposed to the segmentation of management clients, recognises the need to accommodate individual differences. This is the basis for concepts such as negotiable remuneration packages, employment contracts, flexible working hours, and job sharing. The techniques used for consumer segmentation by marketers can be applied directly here. It provides opportunity for companies to â€Å"lessen the influence of unions by placing greater emphasis on direct employee communication, in addition to, or instead of, industrial relations conducted in the traditional representative way†15. Developing and Implementing the Marketing Mix Once the tasks of determining the mission of the HR department and the target market segments to be emphasised have been undertaken, a marketing-oriented HR function will focus on the ‘ marketing mix’ The marketing programme is developed . ased upon a decision on marketing mix variables over which the HR manager has some control: designing the product or service, costing it, setting up a service delivery system, promotion of the product to clients, and gainin g commitment for proposals from management. Figure 4 illustrates the four elements of the marketing mix which need to be addressed. Whilst all elements need to be considered, two key variables – the design of the ‘ product’ (ie courses or services) and communications are especially important. These two key variables and their relevance for the HR manager are now reviewed. n Designing the ‘ Product’ . It has been pointed out that the process of a marketing department introducing a new product, and resolution of a complex long-standing problem by the HR function are very similar. Figure 5 illustrates this, and is based on Desatnick16 who argues that â€Å"as the contribution of HRM is less tangible and more difficult of end results, it is even more important to market it effectively. to measure in terms This implies taking the time to reflect, to position, to package, to merchandise, and to sell†. Thus the HR manager must get the maximum impact from each situation through careful Figure 4: The Four Elements of the Marketing Mix ELEMENTS OF THE MARKETING MIX FOR A COMPANY 1. PRODUCTS OR SERVICES 1. ‘ PRODUCTS (SERVICES, COURSES, ETC) 2. THE LOCATION AND DELIVERY MEANS OF SERVICES AND COURSES 3. COMMUNICATIONS WITH CLIENT GROUPS (PRIMARILY THROUGH DISCUSSION AND DOCUMENTATION) 4. TRANSFER PRICING AND EXPENSE ALLOCATION 2. PLACE (DISTRIBUTION) 3. PROMOTION (MAINLY THROUGH ADVERTISING AND PERSONAL SELLING) 4. PRICING FIGURE 5: COMPARING PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT COMPLEX HR ISSUE TO RESOLVING A Introducing the new produa (a 1 to 3 year cycle) DETER&MINE PRODUCT NEED FOR NEW I Resolving a complex HR issue (a 1 to 3 year cycle) DETERMINE NEED FOR NEW PROJECT, PROGRAM What is the cost of not resolving this nsue? What will be its impact on norms and vuua! What IS cost bcncrit value KOinrcmai diem! Eyk! lJlJTE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR 1 – Who wril buy it and why? How much will they spend on it? Whaf neeas will it sat&y? ISCREEN NEW PRODUCT ID&4 ( What impact will it have? Will it be profitable? Is it compauble existing produas? 1TEST MARKET THE PRODUCT [ What impact will it have on operauorr~! Who will manage and use the project! How does it iit with current proJects/ priorities? CONDUCT A PILOT PROJECT 1 Do internal clients find it useiui? Will they supponfpay! To what exrenr! Who mll oppose IL? Why? ;fEysNCE TO OTHER POTENTIAL How do prospeas vim the proaucr! What needs does it satisfy? Have we deslgncd the nght produa! / tiXAPsTO OTHER TEST .irc tkdings consistent! .tie there log8suc/quaiity problems! Did promotrons resuit in expccrea s3la! ( Is the project valid/reliable? Does it meet needs of ail company locations! Have the beneiits been property iommuxlLcarea? ASSESS OUTCO,ME IN ADVANCE ! Which funcuons are aifectco and how! Will it cause contusion! Have ttma. raourca dr costs been aeuuicd? .-NALYSE. ?IlEASURE. PROJECT T What tmpaa on other iuncuons! Detaucd buaga and plans. Have d impticauons been conslderca? /ESPA%D TO A NATIONAL LaIUNCH i : 1,MPLEMEM COMPANY WIDE i Does tne poremat ourwaqh nsics! . e promorlons ana follow-u! 3 ;iannea! .tie 10glsua ana supply lines rcaav? Have we mcxns ior ldcnufying scrwcc xooIcmr. ana dissausiacuons! Doa project add to HR’ crcntbtlitv! s Who wlii tram whom ‘ do wnat. snere. to when! Have system! we an eifecttve audit/evalUallOn Will the Issue really be resolved? management of those elements he can control. Developing a product or service for a client group is an activity over which the HR manager has a great deal of control, and consequently provides an area where management attention can be rewarded with maximum impact. H Communication. Communication represents promotional activity in the form of advertising, indirect publicity, and face-to-face selling which is employed by marketers to influence potential, or existing customers to behave in desired ways, such as to undertake the trial purchase of a product the firm has just launched onto the market. Promotion can also be used to influence employees to reconsider attitudes, to inform managers, or alter the way in which a particular programme is perceived by the clients to whom it is directed. The use of â€Å"publicity† through internal publications and other documentation can be used to provide feedback to employees on current issues, as well as enhance and reinforce the credibility of the research process. A well conceived internal promotional programme can have very positive effects on employees. It can motivate, educate, or help provide a sense of belonging. The famous Avis Rent-a-Car slogan suggesting that Avis employees â€Å"Try harder† was as effective for their employees as it was for the public image of Avis. This type of corporate advertisement primarily seeks to influence the perceptions of external publics, but management tends to forget these campaigns are also critically viewed by employees at all levels within the organisation. A campaign which lacks credibility with employees is not consistent with development of a positive organisational culture. Management should develop corporate communications which are consistent with the HRM objectives of the organisation. Simpler, less ambitious projects can also produce significant impact for the HR function. . Personal interaction with other functional areas can contribute significantly to HR marketing efforts. In situations where a service or programme is either partly, or fully dependent on the performance of employees for success, the communications and promotional activity should be concerned not only with encouraging clients to buy, but with encouraging employees to perform. commitment of both employees and management. The implementation and control processes represent the final step which involves the measuring of effectiveness and efficiency, taking corrective action, and iteration through the marketing planning processes. The well established marketing planning Success in business requires the literature† provides a framework to follow in undertaking this task. CONCLUSIONS The 1980s saw the start of a new emphasis on the HRM function. It has been pointed out that the reality is that a firm adopting ‘ HRM’ may simply involve a retitling of the old personnel department with no obvious change in its functional role, or it may be ‘ strategic HRM’ which represents a fundamental reconceptualisation and re-organisation of personnel roles and departments. 18 There are different models of HRM and this has importance for its evaluation. g The focus of strategic HRM encompassesall those decisions and actions which concern the management of employees at all levels within the organisation and which are directed towards creating and sustaining competitive advantage*O, but recent European research suggest that ‘ strategic HRM’ is still not widespread. Findings from the Price Waterhouse/Cranfield HR research project shows that in many European organisations HR strategies follow on behind corporate strategy rather than making a positive contribution to it; and although HR representation at board level is becoming more common, this does not necessarily bring with it involvement in key decisions. l Some firms have been able to integrate HR and strategy but to achieve this it usually requires a concentrated and multi-dimensional effort. ** The scope of marketing has traditionally been limited to the exchanges that take place between organisations and their customers. More recently this scope has been expanded to encompass the field of ‘ relationship marketing’ which suggests that 23 marketing principles can be applied to a number of ot her key markets, including internal markets within the firm. We argue that there exist compelling reasons for bringing the internal marketing concept to bear on problems faced by all HR managers, but the greatest value will be obtained in these firms adopting ‘ strategic HRM’ . The shift in organisational philosophy from asset management to operations management, the introduction of new technologies to some industries, and the increased strategic importance of managing people resources effectively and efficiently, has meant the role performed by HR managers demands a much higher level of competence and professional skills. Marketing provides an action framework, and a practical approach by which the HR manager can provide effective solutions to key corporate problems. This fresh perspective will bring marketoriented HR managers significant benefits. In spite of emphasis in this paper on the need for HR managers to deal effectively with the challenges they face, it must be recognised that much opportunity for the future status of HRM lies with the CEOs. Their task is to provide organisational vision, and many have still failed to recognise the value of strategic HRM in the present business environment. In spite of this, the HR manager must share the responsibility through not having convinced top management that HRM is strategically relevant to business success. Adopting a market orientation requires the HR manager to focus on the needs and wants of internal customer groups and to stimulate internal service. An investment in the marketing approach is an investment in people. REFERENCES 1. BUSINESS WEEK, â€Å"Human Resource Managers Aren’ Corporate Nobodies t Anymore†, 2 December 1985, p 58. 2. 3. CARLZON,J, Moments of Truth, Ballinger Publishing Company, 1987. REINCHELD,F F and SASSER, E Jr, â€Å"Zero Defections: Quality Comes to W Services†, Harvard Business Review, September-October 1990, pp105-111 and BUCHANAN, W J and GILLIES, C S, â€Å"Value Managed Relationships: The Key R to Customer Retention and Profitability†, European Management Journal, Vol 8, No 4, December 1990, pp 523-526. 4. BERRY, L L, â€Å"The Employee as Customer†, Journal of Retail Bunking, Vol 3, No 1, March 1981, pp 33-40. 5. BAIRD, L and MESHOULAM, â€Å"A Second Chance for HR to Make the Grade†, I, Personnel, Vol 63, No 4, April 1986, pp 45-48. 6. PETERS,T J and WATERMAN,R H JR, In Search of Excellence: Lessons form America’ Best Run Companies, Harper & Row, 1982. s 7. 8. KOTLER, P, Marketing Management, 5th edition, Prentice-Hall, 1984, p 4. COLLINS,B A, â€Å"The Friction Between Marketing and Finance†, The Australian Accountant, Vol 55, No 4, May 1985, p 45-48. 9. 10. MURPHY, P E and ENIS, B M, Marketing, Scott, Foresman & Co, 1985, p 16. PAYNE, A F T, â€Å"Developing a Marketing Oriented Organisation†, Business Horizons, Vol 31, No 3, May-June 1988, pp 46-53. 11. VANDERMERWE, and GILBERT, D, â€Å"Making Internal Service Market Driven†, S Business Horizons, Vol 32, No 6, November-December 1989, pp 83-89. 12. 13. Berry, ob tit DRUCKER,P F, Management: Tasks. Responsibilities, Practices, Harper & Row, 1974. 14. WEINSHALL, D, â€Å"Help for Chief Executives: The Outside Consultant†, T California Management Review, Summer 1982, Vol 24, No 4, p 47-58. 15. CUPPER,L G, â€Å"An Employer’ Viewpoint on the Use of Dialogue in Industrial s and Employee Relations†, Melbourne University Business School Association Journal, Vol 10, No 1, 1987. 16. DESATNICK,R L, â€Å"Marketing HRD: The Creditiability Gap That’ Got To Go†, s Training, June 1983, Vol 20, No 6, p 52. 17. MCDONALD, M, Marketing Plans: How to Prepare Them: How To Use Them, Heinemann, second edition, 1989. 18. See GUEST, D E, â€Å"Human Resource Management and Industrial Relations†, Journal of Management Studies, Vol 24, No 5, 1987, pp 503-521 and GUEST D, â€Å"Personnel and HRM: Can You Tell the Difference? â€Å", Personnel Management, Vol 13, No 1, January 1989, pp 48-51. 19. 20. TYSON, S V and FELL, A, Evaluating the Personnel Function, Hutchinson, 1986. MILLER P, â€Å"Strategic HRM: What It Is and What It Isn’ Personnel t†, Management, February 1989, ~~46-5 1. 21. BREWSTER, and SMITH C, † Corporate Strategy: A No-Go Area for C Personnel? â€Å", Personnel Management, July 1990, pp 36-40. For a US view also see: BURACK,E H, â€Å"Corporate Business and Human Resource Planning Practices: Strategic Issues and Concerns†, Organisational Dynamics, Vol 15, No 1, Summer 1986, pp 73-87. 22. BULLER, P F, â€Å"Successful Partnerships: HR and Strategic Planning at Eight Top Firms†, Organizational Dynamics, Vol 17, No 2, Autumn 1988, pp 27-43. 23. M, CHRISTOPHER, PAYNE, A F T and BALLANTYNE,D, Relationship Marketing. Bringing Quality, Customer Service and Marketing Together, Heinemann 1991 (forthcoming).

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Just War Theory and a Thoughtful Realist Essay Example for Free

Just War Theory and a Thoughtful Realist Essay One important theory within International Relations shows a moral aspect on how to conduct war. This theory is called Just War Theory. Just War Theory is a doctrine of military ethics from a philosophical and Catholic viewpoint. This theory consists of two parts: Jus ad bellum (the right to go to war) and Jus in bello (right conduct within war). Jus a bellum, the right to go to war, explicitly describes how a nation-state should conduct itself before preparing for war. There are seven sub-categories within Jus a bellum: Just Cause, Comparative Justice, Competent Authority, Right Intention, Profitability of Success, Last Resort, and Proportionality. Just Cause is explained as needing to have a reason to go to war. Not just for recapturing material possessions, but if lives are in danger. Comparative Justice is described, as the suffering and injustice on one side within a war must outweigh the suffering and injustice on the opposite side. Competent Authority must be in order within a war. Nation-states that start war must only start it if the authorities within the nation-state are focused on justice. Right Intention is defined as; force may be only used for a just cause correcting a suffered wrong. Gaining or maintaining economies by a nation-state is not considered just. Profitability of Success indicates that arms are not to be used where unbalanced measures are pertinent to be successful. The Last Resort category is presented as; force in war may only be used if peaceful alternatives have been completely depleted. The final category, Proportionality, is the foreseen benefits of starting war must be proportionate to its expected wrongs. Jus in bello, right conduct within war, shows how a nation-state should handle different situations within a war. There are five sub-categories within Jus in bello: Distinction, Proportionality, Military Necessity, Fair Treatment of Prisoners of War, and No Means malum in se (evil within itself). Distinction is described as; nobody in war should attack those not involved in war. No one should bomb civilian areas where there are no military targets. Also, those in war should not target those who have been captured, surrendered, or do not present immediate threat. Proportionality is the idea that an attack cannot be launched on a military objective in the knowledge that the incidental civilian injuries would outweigh the military advantage. Military Necessity is demonstrated as the use of the most minimal force to limit the unnecessary death of civilians. Fair Treatment of Prisoners of War, under Just War Theory, is important. It prohibits the mistreating or torturing of captured enemies because they no longer pose a threat. The final category is No Means malum in se. This prohibits the use of evil weapons and methods of warfare including: mass rape, nuclear weapons, and biological warfare. The Just War Theory explicitly details on how war should be carried out by a nation-state. Although war involves deaths and destructions, this is one of the most moral ways to handle warfare. In the world of realism, a thoughtful realist would like to believe that every single one of these categories would be played out perfectly. But, there are many inhibitors with each of these. A thoughtful realist would not believe with the concepts of Just Cause and Profitability of Success because nation-states need to protect their territories and their economy to stay in their current position of power. Under the concept of Last Resort, a thoughtful realist would agree not to jump into war immediately, but if a major threat were to happen upon a nation-state, it would be necessary. Proportionality within Jus ad bellum and Jus in bello coincides with the views of the realists of stability within a nation-state. Realists understand the effects of war on civilians. Contrary to Distinction and Military Necessity, Realists recognize that within war there are many casualties and sometimes they are of civilians and those not involved in the war. With terrorist groups of today, a thoughtful realist would say that torture of those captured is sometimes pertinent to safeguard the state. This combats the view of Fair Treatment of Prisoners of War. When the safety of a country is at risk, a realist would agree that it becomes a vital interest. This vital interest could lead to nuclear or biological warfare depending on the severity of the vital interest. Within the No Mean malum in se category, it overtly condemns this. But a thoughtful realist would agree that these steps might be necessary in some situations. A thoughtful realist would agree with one part of the category, which states that mass rape is completely immoral. A thoughtful realist would want to agree with every statement within the Just War Theory. However, understanding when protection and vital interests are at stake, a thoughtful realist would agree to disregard most of the Just Law Theory to safeguard the country.

Genetic Mutations Result In Faulty Proteins

Genetic Mutations Result In Faulty Proteins The DNA sequence codes for a particular gene which is then copied into a protein sequence code. Protein is found in every cell in human body and has a vital role in cell growth and tissue repair. The amino acids are the building blocks of proteins which are arranged in a specific order to determine the proteins shape and function. The incorrect amino acid sequence leads to harmful consequences because it can lead to the formation of faulty proteins which can cause disruption in metabolic and regulatory pathways which cause genetic disorders (1). Genetic mutation is a change in genomic sequence which encodes DNA. It can be either inherited or somatic mutation. Somatic mutations are introduced either during DNA replication or when the DNA repair process fails. Agents which damage DNA are frequent carcinogens. Most carcinogenic agents are mutagens. There are two classes of mutations caused by mutagens. The first class is spontaneous mutations caused by depurination, deamination and demethylation(3). The second class is induced mutations caused by ionizing radiation,chemical mutagens and ultra violet radiation(3). Mutation during DNA replication Before cell divides, cell duplicates its entire DNA sequence. To start DNA replication, the DNA helicase separates the DNA molecule into two strands. Then DNA polymerase copies each strand of DNA in order to create two double-stranded DNA molecules. Somatic mutation occurs when this DNA polymerase makes an error in copying which takes place once every 100,000,000 bases (4). Mutation effects Single base substitution: The consequences of single base substitution mutation depend on the location of the protein which can lead to either silent mutation, missense mutation or a non-sense mutation. Silent mutations are those which dont produce any change in an amino acid sequence of a protein. They occur in that region that either doesnt code for a protein or doesnt alter the final sequence of amino acid chain. For example GCA codon turns into GCG codon as in result of single nucleotide replacement because both GCA and GCG codons mean arginine in mRNA (8). Missense mutations involve a change in a single nucleotide to cause substitution of a different amino acid. This can result into a non-functional protein. Sickle cell anemia is an example of missense mutation where CTC in the DNA sense strand specifies glutamate residue get altered with GUG in the mRNA which results in a Valine residue in the protein causing sickle-cell anemia (8). Non-sense mutations are those which results in a premature stop codon leading to the formation of a non-functional protein. An example for non-sense mutation is a single nucleotide replacement from C to T in codon CAG which forms a stop codon TAG. This incorrect sequence causes the shortening of protein (8). Frameshift mutation: This mutation is the result of an insertion or a deletion of one or more nucleotides from the DNA sequence but not in multiples of three because bases in set of three forms a codon which provides the code for an amino acid sequence of the protein. So as DNA polymerase read the triplet nature of codon so an insertion or a deletion can disrupt its reading frame which results into a completely different translation done by the DNA polymerase (8+6). Chromosome mutation: Any change either in structure or arrangement of chromosomes is a chromosome mutation which frequently occurs in meiosis during crossing over. The different types of chromosome mutation are:- Translocation: In this mutation, a piece of one chromosome gets transferred to a non-homologous chromosome. For example when translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22 takes place, an abnormal gene forms which codes for an abnormal faulty protein resulting the development of leukaemia (8). Inversion: During this mutation, a DNA region on a chromosome flips its orientation leading the formation of an abnormal gene which then codes for a faulty abnormal protein. Deletion: In this mutation, a chromosome section gets deleted which results in the loss of genes (6). Duplication: During this mutation, some genes get duplicate and get read twice by the DNA polymerase on the same chromosome resulting in the formation of a faulty abnormal protein (6). Non-disjunction: This is when chromosomes dont separate successfully to opposite poles at anaphase stage during meiosis which allows the presence of an extra chromosome in one of the daughter cells. Downs syndrome is an example of non-disjunction which occurs in chromosome 21 of a human egg cell (8). Removal of faulty proteins In eukaryotic cells, faulty proteins are recognized and degraded very rapidly in cells to prevent any harmful consequences. The two major faulty protein destruction pathways are:- Ubiquitin-proteasome pathway for faulty intracellular proteins: In the case of formation of faulty proteins which are defective get ejected into the proteasome from the endoplasmic reticulum through channels called retrotranslocons. Proteasome is a large multi-catalytic protein complex found in all eukaryotes which is located in nucleus and cytoplasm. It is responsible to degrade faulty intracellular proteins through proteolysis(2). The enzymes which carry out proteolysis are known as proteases. Those intracellular proteins which need to go under degradation get tagged with another small protein called ubiquitin(2). Ubiquitin binds to the amino group of the side chain of a lysine residue. This tagging process is catalyzed by ubiquitin ligase. Once the protein gets tagged,a signal gets released to other ligases allowing more ubiquitin molecules to attach to form a poly-ubiquitin chain. Poly-ubiquitin chain then bound by the 26s proteasome complex which leads to the degradation of tagged protein(7). Ubiquitin does get released which that can be reused in next cycle. However ATP is used for the attachment of ubiquitin and for the degradation of tagged proteins (5). Lysosomal proteolysis for faulty extracellular proteins: Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed cellular organelles in animals containing digestive enzymes and proteases. They have important roles in cell metabolism including the digestion of extracellular proteins taken up through endocytosis. So during this protein degradation pathway, the protein is uptaken by lysosomes through the formation of vesicles derived from endoplasmic reticulum called autophagosomes. Then these autophagosomes fuse with lysosomes so in result the digestive lysosomal enzymes digest their contents (5).

Roles Played By Reason And Imagination In Knowledge Philosophy Essay

Roles Played By Reason And Imagination In Knowledge Philosophy Essay The role played by imagination was insignificant in the achievement of knowledge due to its confusing and tentative nature and that rational thought was the sources of much knowledge believed Sir Francis Bacon, a deterministic, Renaissance rationalist.  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  The Critique of Pure Reason contrasts this view, stating that both reason and imagination are necessary for acquiring knowledge.  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  However, to what extent can Bacons views on reason and imagination be justified? This essay will examine such a concept through the exploration of the four ways of knowing (perception, language, emotion and reason) as well as two areas of knowledge, which will be history and the natural sciences. The Critique of Pure Reason is written by Immanuel Kant, a theorist. He mostly concerned himself with the metaphysical world, a reality based on abstract and empirical concepts. The proposition of this idea is bizarre coming from a man who lived in the Age of Reason when being rational was considered the ultimate and most accurate way of knowing. Reason is defined as the process of thinking and gaining knowledge through manipulation, integration and evaluation of facts and ideas, it can be either deductive reasoning (from the general to the particular) or inductive reasoning (from the particular to general principles)  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  . Whereas imagination is defined as the power of reproducing images stored in the memory under the suggestion of associated images or of recombining former experiences to create new images  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  Using the above definitions, incorporating the four ways of knowing and the two areas of knowledge to address the knowledge issue: are the roles of reason and imagination necessary to gain adequate knowledge in the areas of the natural sciences and history? Firstly, the definition of adequate is to be provided. According to the Encarta English Dictionary, adequate is defined as sufficient in quality or quantity to meet a need or qualify for something. It has been accepted that achieving absolute truth is virtually impossible, thus the knowledge issue is worded in a manner to account for this. History is defined as the study of the past  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  by Richard van de Lagemaat and by Britannica Encyclopedia as the discipline that studies the chronological record of events (as affecting a nation or people), based on a critical examination of source materials and usually presenting an explanation of their causes  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  ; it is essentially a study of human behavior. In schools, history falls under the humanities subject department or in the literary arts, yet, there are some who contest this idea and believe it should be considered more a natural science than a literary art or humanities subject. The writing language of written history incorporates an emotional aspect. This can be justified by the means of identifying the roles of reason and imagination in history. Due to its definition supplied by Britannica, history requires reason, and because the language used to define the subject, history is made to seem as though it is mimicking a scientific doctrine. A scientific doctrine is defined as the results of an experiment must be both independently verifiable and independently reproducible.  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  From this definition, however, it presents a counter argument. It suggest that history cannot be a considered a natural science due to its non-experimental nature; one cannot reproduce or change the past, only analyze and learn from it. It is subjective and owns a subcategory of historiography which is the critical response to an in-depth analysis of sources, transforming them into narratives to justify events, why they happened the way they did and explaining the psyche behind the decisions made.  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  Scientists argue that the perspective of a historian is adjusted, predetermined before he starts his work as he will only look for sources and information to prove his hypothesis.  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  Nonetheless, with only reason, history would remain incomplete. Ele ments of historiography are more imaginative than historians prefer to let on; there are gaps in the information. There is no possibility that ever single second of history will ever be recorded, and only as of recent, we have managed to become very close to this aspiration with the invention of things such as the internet and world news as it happens, making the recording of history easier but much more open to interpretation. This involves imagination, rather than reason. Reason does not allow for outside-of-the-box thought patterns, traditionally; and imagination is required to piece together the delicate puzzle in a poetic and sensible way. History is also plagued with the idea of hindsight bias. These are tendencies to believe, after learning of an outcome, that one could have foreseen it.  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  Hindsight bias can be considered to have rational elements, but also consists of fallacies like cognitive bias. This, according to Wikipedia, is a pattern of dev iation in judgment that occurs in particular situations.  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  History, or at least accurate history, is not produced by mere imagination, devotions and poetic utterances, if it were just art; a writer could compose a whole new reality than what really happened outside his own imagination. Historians have archaeology to draw from. They have primary documents that tell them what people were declaring. They cannot verify the way scientists can, but they can be empirical. It can be deduced that history is a science. There may indeed be scientific elements in judging a military situation  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  ; nevertheless, there are an equal number of factors that simply cannot be scientifically quantified. In order for history to be as actuate as possible, both imagination and reason play key roles in acquiring knowledge. The role of imagination in history is that with which one can understand the events that transpire around a particular situation. Re ason plays a role in establishing what the event is. Without the imagination, reason is only a few written words; with the imagination, reason becomes more powerful and substantiating. Natural sciences are recognized as a model for knowledge owing to many factors, prime among which is their capacity to explain and make precise predictions.  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  Natural sciences are often known as hard sciences, consisting of biology, chemistry and physics. They are often considered to be solely rational subjects that defy religion and question the world we live in, believed to give automatic proof of intellectual superiority because of its empirical data and facts and use of rational thinking, devoid of emotion and laden with precise and concise language. The idea of natural sciences as a literary art is nearly unheard of. This idea follows Bacons school of thought. Alternatively, in the spirit of Kants school of thought, it can also be considered a capacity for imaginative thinking. Most scientific laws and theories known today can be considered to have started with a creative endeavor, beginning with thought and imagination even though it is scientificall y based.  [CITATION TIM62 l 1033]  The thought that reason is the purest and truest way of attaining knowledge, an idea from the 17th century Renaissance, known as the Age of Reason, is slowly becoming contradicted. For example, the now respected idea that a high IQ is not a reliable sign of giftedness may simply indicate convergent thinking. Truly creative children are said to have divergent thinking that tend to find IQ tests boring and do not readily accept the right answer as the right one. A Chicago team devised various tests to spot divergent thinkers, testing 95 school boys. The test asked students to make up alternate endings for fables, instead of simply picking the right answers, and to write stories suggested by stimuli such as pictures which supply many different uses for everyday objects. Surprisingly, the top scores came from those specializing in history and English literature. The least creative, according to Hudsons findings, were the natural science students. Y oung scientists, says Hudson, tend to be less intellectually flexible than young arts specialists and more restricted emotionally.  [CITATION The08 l 1033]  In natural science, imagination is needed in order to correctly interpret data and create further possibilities for experimentation, although reason is used to ascertain whether or not ones findings and ones methods are realistic. There is little to suggest that the artists view point of science is more than just a thought or crazy theory, but it is evidently important for the scientist to view the world from an imaginative perpective. The idea of natural science as an art has only been seen in science fiction literatures, however, the language used in these works are generally emotionally laden even though they give the perception of being scientifically concise. Even though it has the word science in it, and presents logically plausible notions (in some cases), science fiction is often associated with imagination and fanta sy rather than reason and logic. Overall, it can be concluded that neither imagination nor reason are ruling aspects of history or natural science, but are necessary together in creating tangibility and some degree of certainty in attaining knowledge. Both of them create counterparts for each other making them unable to logically exist alone. It can be argued that Bacons views on reason and imagination are fairly unjustified as the roles of both are necessary to gain adequate knowledge and understanding in the natural sciences and history, as without one, the other becomes nearly useless; it supports Kants thesis, The Critique of Pure Reason. It is clear that Bacon failed to see the necessity of corresponding thoughts to create an ideological notion, integrating both aspects of acquiring knowledge for reason and imagination are highly dependent on each other for support. Word count: 1,602